Siege of Van

The Siege of Van, Resistance at Van, Van Resistance (Armenian: Վանի Հերոսամարտ Vani Herosamart, Turkish: Van Direnişi) or Van Rebellion, Van Revolt (Turkish: Van İsyanı), Armenian Revolution at Van (Turkish: Van İhtilâli^[4][5]) was an insurgency against the Ottoman Empire's attempts to massacre the Armenian population in the vilâyet of Van.^[6] Several contemporaneous observers and later historians have pointed out that the Ottoman government deliberately instigated the armed Armenian Resistance by enforcing the conditions on their subjects^[7] and then used this insurgency as a main pretext to justify the forced deportations of Armenians from all over the empire. However, the decisions of deportation and extermination were made before the Van resistance.^[8]

De Nogales' assessment substantiated the reports of the other witnesses who maintained that the Armenian posture at Van was defensive and an act of resistance to massacre. Based mostly in the city of Van, it was one of the few instances during the Armenian Genocide when Armenians fought against the Ottoman Empire's armed forces. The fighting lasted from 19 April to 17 May 1915, when the Ottoman army retreated as Russian forces approached the city.

Background

During the late Ottoman period, Van was an important center of Armenian cultural, social, and economic life. Khrimian Hayrik established a printing press in Van, and thereafter launched Vaspurakan Ardzvi (Eagle of Vaspourakan), which was the first periodical publication in Armenia.^[9] In 1885, the Armenakan party was established in the city of Van. Soon after, the Hnchak and Dashnak parties, whose missions were basically the overthrow of the Ottoman rule in Eastern Anatolia (Six vilayets), established branches in the city.

Throughout 1895–96 Armenians in the Ottoman Empire suffered in a wave of violence commonly known as the Hamidian massacres. While Van largely avoided massacres in 1895, the Ottomans sent a military expedition in June 1896. Armenians were initially able to defend themselves in Van, but upon agreeing to disarm in exchange for safety, massacres continued, culminating in the death of over 20,000 Armenians.

The pre-war (World War I) demographic values of the Van Province, Ottoman Empire had different values based on different sources. In 1914, Armenians lived on the shores of the lake Van. The major Armenian inhabited localities were the city of Van (consisted of three sub-sections which were Havasor (Gürpınar), Timar (Gedikbulak) and Archak (Erçek)). Armenians also lived in the district Erciş (Artchesh, Akants) which was in the north of the province, and district Çatak (Shatakh), district Başkale (Bashkaleh) and district Bahçesaray (Moks) in south of the province. In 1896 census, there were 79,998 Armenians.^[10] In 1896 census, Armenians were located in the city of Van 35%, Erciş 64%, Çatak 37%, Bashkale 18%, Bahçesaray 48%.^[11] The 1912 local Patriarch statistic stated that Armenian population was 110,000.^[12] The original 1914 Ottoman census stated that Armenian population was 67,797 and Muslim population was 179,422.^[13] The 1914 official census was challenged both on Armenian and Muslim population size. The original 1914 Ottoman statistics claimed to be under-representative for the children. The corrected values for Van province stated as 313,000 Muslim, 130,000 Armenian (25%), and 65,000 or so Syrian, Chaldean, Nestorian and others^[14] Population estimate for the city of Van is more difficult. Extensive population movements in and around the city happened with the deterioration of the economic and political situation before World War I. Ottoman population count at the time recorded 79,000 Muslims and 34,000 Armenians in the city of Van including the immediate surrounding areas.^[15] The city of Van's Armenian population was about 30,000 people in the fall of 1914.^[16]

Prelude: Caucasian Front

On 30 October 1914, after an exchange of fire during the pursuit of Goeben and Breslau, the Ottoman Empire entered World War I. The Van province was positioned between Persia and the Caucasus. The most accessible routes that linked Persia, Russia, Mesopotamia and Anatolia laid through this province.^[20] Van had a high strategic value as a consequence of its location.^[20]

The first engagement of the Caucasus Campaign took place on 2 November 1914 with the Bergmann Offensive.^[21] The Russians had successes along the Kara Kilise (renamed Karaköse in November 1919, present day Ağrı) – Beyazit (Doğubeyazıt) line. Beyazit was located in the north of the Province of Van and Armenian volunteers were helpful auxiliaries in capturing these regions.^[22]

During December 1914, Nicholas II of Russia visited the Caucasus Front. In the presence of the head of the Armenian Church and alongside Alexander Khatisyan who was of the president of the Armenian National Bureau in Tiflis, Nicholas II stated: "Armenians from all countries are hurrying to enter the ranks of the glorious Russian Army, and with their blood, to serve the victory of the Russian Army... Let the Russian flag wave freely over the Dardanelles and the Bosporus, let your the peoples (christians) remaining under the Turkish yoke receive freedom through your will. Let the Armenian people of Turkey, who have suffered for the faith of Christ, receive resurrection for a new and free life ...".^[23] Ottoman War Minister Enver Pasha wanted to encircle the Russian forces between Sarikamis and Ardahan. The Battle of Sarikamis (29 December 1914 – 4 January 1915) was a disastrous defeat for Enver Pasha. For their role in this success, the Armenian volunteers received credit, as they were natives of the region, well adjusted to the climate, familiar with every road and mountain path and motivation to wage fierce and resolute combat.^[24] The Armenian volunteers were small, mobile units, well adapted to the semi-guerrilla warfare.^[25] They did good work as scouts, though they took active part in many conventional engagements.^[25] Armenian volunteers challenged the Ottoman operations during critical times: "the delay they caused, enabled the Russian Caucasus Army to concentrate sufficient force around Sarikamish".^[26] After he returned to Constantinople, Enver blamed his defeat on Armenians living in the region, for actively siding with Russia.^[27]

On 11 December 1914 Ottoman preparations for the Persian Campaign began with Enver Pasha's order to form a provisional force that would be channeled using the roads in Van Province.^[28] The Russians transferred Armenian General Tovmas Nazarbekian to the Russian-occupied Persian Azerbaijan.^[29] Theodore G. Chernozubov and his Persian Cossack Brigade was in Persia since 1906. During this period, the Ottoman authorities distributed 24,000 rifles to the Kurds in Persia and the district of Van.^[29]

The Ottoman 1st Expeditionary Force was assigned to Chief of Intelligence of the Ottoman General Headquarters, Staff Lieutenant Colonel Kâzim Karabekir Bey.^[28][30] The 5th Expeditionary Force was assigned to Staff Lieutenant Colonel Halil Bey, who was the uncle of Enver Pasha and would defeat the British at Kut al Amara on 29 April 1916.^[31]

The 1st Expeditionary Force was structurally self sufficient, capable of independent operations, supplemented with the 7 and 9th Infantry Regiments, a cavalry detachment, a field hospital, a transportation unit, an intelligence section, a mountain howitzer battalion with two batteries, a telegraph section, a field battery, an equipment repair battalion, a replacement depot and transportation assets.^[28] On 10 January 1915, while the 1st Expeditionary Force was on its way to Persian Azerbaijan the original plan was scraped. The 1st Expeditionary Force was assigned to the 3rd Army because of the disastrous battle of Sarikamis.^[32] On 11 January 1915 the 5th Expedisionary Force was orderd north to Erzurum and eleven days later 1st Expeditionary Force was orderd there as well.^[33] The Van Gendarmerie Regiment under the command of Staff Major Köprülü Kâzım Bey (Özalp), who would become the Minister of National Defence and Speaker of Grand National Assembly of Turkey,^[34] was the only force available to the Persian frontier. On 14 December 1914, Van Mobile Gendarmerie Division assumed the role of securing the road to Persia through the Qotur valley (Qotur Pass). This paramilitary formation was lightly equipped with artillery and machine guns, and it was suited for internal security functions rather than for an invasion of a neighboring country.^[32]

In addition to this, during this period in 1914–1915, American and German missionaries present in the area reported occurrences of massacres of the Armenian population. According to one source, all of the 52 Armenian villages near Beyazit and Eleşkirt were raided, pillaged and destroyed by the Hamidiye cavalry regiments.^[35]

Forces

After the disastrous depletion of the 3rd Army in the battle of Sarikamis, the gendarmerie, originally charged with police duties among civilian populations, transferred to the 3rd Army. The Ottoman Army tried to restore combat effectiveness. On 24 February 1915, Ottomans were forced to send the Harput, Diyarbakir, and Bitlis gendarmerie units to the city of Van.^[36] There were 52,000 Ottoman troops in the Caucuses war zone during this period, and 75% were located at the northern war zone beyond the province of Van.^[37] The Ottoman units in the Van province consisted of Van Gendarmerie subdivisions under the control of the Governor. The Van Gendarmerie Division also contained the artillery unit of Rafael de Nogale. The 36th Infantry Division was assembled from Mesopotamia on orders to control the southern part, near Lake Van.^[38] The 1st Expeditory Force held the front to the south of Lake Van.^[38]

A battalion dubbed "the butcher battalion (Turkish: kasab taburu)" was numbering some 5,000 men.^[39]

The Armenian population in the city had taken measures as well. The management established a unified authority ( "The Military Defense Authority" ) that consisted of Armenak Ekarian, Aram Manukian, Kaytsak Arakel, Bulgaratsi Gregory, Gabriel Semerjian, Hrant Galikian and Panos Terlemezian. Support services were set up and distribution of food, medical aid, arms shop (an established manufacture of gunpowder and arms that was capable of casting two guns), were organized. The Women's Union was founded but was mainly engaged in manufacturing clothing for combatants. In the face of imminent danger, representatives of various Armenian political parties (Ramkavar, Dashnaks) rallied together. The Van defenders numbered no more than 1500 combatants, who had only 505 rifles and 750 Mauser pistols and a small supply of ammunition. The Military Defense Authority issued orders to use ammunition with extra caution. The Aygestan neighborhood was divided into 5 areas of defense with 73 distinct positions.^[41]

Siege

The most important change for Van was the transfer of Governor Hassan Tahsin Pasha to Erzurum and his replacement with Djevdet Bey.^[43] Djevdet Bey was the brother-in-law of Enver Pasha, and was accompanied by Rafael de Nogales Méndez. De Nogales was assigned with the permission of the 3rd Army's commanding German officer to oversee the Ottoman Gendarmerie units under the new governor. The Armenian leaders were Aram Manukian, who was the regional party leader of Armenian Revolutionary Federation (ARF), Armenakis Yekarian from the ranks of Armenakans, Nikoghayos Poghos Mikaelian (Ishkhan) who was member of ARF, and Arshak Vramian who was the deputy of the Ottoman Parliament from Van. Vramian was also Djevdet's classmate.^[43]

Djevdet's reign

During July 1914, Arshak Vramian who was the deputy of Van province, attended the negotiations with the Committee of Union and Progress (CUP) as a liaison for the Armenian congress at Erzurum. The public conclusion of this congress was "Ostensibly conducted to peacefully advance Armenian demands by legitimate means".^[44] Armenian sources say that local Armenian leaders Aram Manukian, Arshak Vramian, Nikoghayos Poghos Mikaelian (Ishkhan), and Armenak Yekaryan told the Armenians of Van to remain loyal to the Ottoman government and not to antagonize it.^[45] The CUP regarded the Armenian congress as the seedbed for establishing the decision of insurrection.^[46] Historian Erikson concluded that after this meeting the CUP was convinced on strong Armenian – Russian links with detailed plans for the detachment of the region from the Ottoman Empire.^[46] Later on September 1914, the army operations for the search of arms, ammunition and operational documents began. 20 October 1914, the 4th Reserve Cavalry Regiment, patrolling Hasankale, reportedly discovered rifles hidden in Armenian homes.^[46] During this period, large numbers of Armenians with weapons were moving into Mush, Bitlis, and Van.^[46] Historian Erikson concluded that "before the war began, indicators of potentially violent intent accumulated, as the authorities found bombs and weapons hidden in Armenian homes".^[46] On the other hand, Nogales witnessed Ottoman army units photographing their own weapons, claiming they had been found in Armenian houses and churches.^[47]

As early as 5 November 1914, a major attack on the 3rd Army's defensive lines in the Van Province developed. The Russians began larger operations toward Saray and Van by 19 November.^[48] In November, the Gendarmerie units of the provincial security apparatus of the Governors changed hand to the military command. This change included the units commanded by the governor of Van. The Van Gendarmerie and Van reserve cavalry divisions were assigned to the Third Army.^[49] The Van Gendarmerie Division placed under the command of Major Ferid. Governor Djevdet kept only a small contingent.

During December 1914, Djevdet Bey issued orders to secure the west of the Van province, as Ottoman forces moved to start the Persian Campaign. CUP negotiators were sent to Erzurum and Van before Djevdet Bey left the city. These negotiators and Djevdet Bey wanted to test the loyalty of the Van Armenians. They wanted to see once again [first one was at Armenian congress] if they agree to stage an uprising in Russian Armenia.^[50] Djevdet demanded that Armenians furnish 4,000 volunteers, according to the conscription in the Ottoman Empire. The Armenians refused this. Ussher states that "it was clear that Djevdet's goals were to massacre the able bodied men of Van so as there would be no defenders, as he had done in the villages under the pretexts of arms searches, which had turned into massacres. The Armenians, parleying to gain time, offered to furnish five hundred soldiers and to pay exemption money for the rest." The Armenian conscription became an issue again when Djevdet returned to the city at during Armenian Easter (April) of 1915.^[43] This time Djevdet asked one more time of Armenians to furnish conscripts to be used for the establishment of Ottoman fortifications. Ussher would say "the Armenians who had practically decided to give the Vali [Jevdet] the four thousand men he had demanded, now dared not do so for they felt certain he intended to put the four thousand to death." Djevdet did not have Armenian soldiers from the city of Van, neither at the first nor the second request.

Persian Azerbaijan had a large Christian population. They were mostly Armenians and Assyrians. Many fled with the retreating Russian army, in a winter trek to the Russian border town of Julfa. Those that remained endured a period of looting and massacre; many villages were plundered and destroyed. After an unsuccessful campaign led by Djevdet Bey to capture Khoi, 160 km north-west of Tabriz, Djevdet ordered the killing of about 800 people – mostly old men, women and children – in the Salmas district (to the north-east of Lake Urmia) in early March.^[51]

On 25 February 1915, the 3rd Army and the all Gendarmerie commands, including the Van Gendarmerie command, received Directive 8682 titled "Increased Security Precautions".^[52] This directive noted increased dissident Armenian activity in Bitlis, Aleppo. Dortyol. and Kayseri, and furthermore identified Russian and French influence and activities in these areas.^[52] The Operations Division directed that the Third and the Fourth Armies increase the surveillance and security measures.^[52] Nevertheless, Felix Guse, commander in chief of the 3rd Army wrote, that there was no proof that the Armenians had planned or had any intentions of mounting a general uprising.^[53]

On 23 March 1915, the 1st Expeditionary Force arrived in the vicinity of the city of Van and later stayed to the south of Van during the conflicts.^[32]

The revolt begins

Prior to these events, killings of Armenian males in the Van region were reported by neutral observers.^[54]

Djevdet's extremism towards Armenians was more open: "a man of dangerously unpredictable moods, friendly one moment, ferociously hostile the next, capable of treacherous brutality",^[55] he had been nicknamed "Nalband Bey" (Lord Blacksmith) after atrocities committed at Başkale in which he had nailed horseshoes onto his victims' feet.^[56]

Upon returning to Van, Djevdet "instigated a reign of terror in the outlying villages of the province on the pretext of searching for arms." In the process, the Ottoman gendarmeries killed many Armenians.^[57] The Armenian leaders of Van in the meanwhile exhorted the people to endure in silence. ". Better," they said, "that some villages be burned and destroyed unavenged than give the slightest pretext to the Moslems for a general massacre.".^[58] However at the same time there were reports of some Turks lynching Kurds responsible for particularly harsh atrocities.^[59]

Some of the rules for their men [the Armenian defenders of Van] were: 'Keep clean; do not drink; tell the truth; do not curse the religion of the enemy.^[58][60]

In the meantime, the massacres, under the pretext of an arms search, continued.^[61] Later, Armenians attacked a Ottoman patrol to Djevdet's anger.^[62] Alarmed, Armenians in Van requested Dr. Clarence Ussher, missionary and representative of the United States, to mediate between them and Djevdet. Djevdet attempted to violate the diplomatic immunity of Ussher's compound by trying to garrison 50 Ottoman soldiers inside.^[63] It became clear to Ussher that mediation attempts would be futile. In the meantime however, reports were circulating that the Armenians had begun to gather volunteers for an organized defense.^[59]

On 15 April, Armenians were mustered at Erciş (Ardjish) by Gendarmerie.^[64] Earlier, the tax collectors accompanied by gendarmeries went to north of Van to count the sheep on which the villagers taxation depended. Erciş was an administrative unit with 80 Armenian villages at north of Van.^[65] The tax collector gave the Sultan's recital of order regarding the calculation of tax values.^[64] Disagreement ensued between the villagers and the tax collector. The disagreement turn to conflict and extended to the gendarmerie unit in Banat and from Banat to other centers. Violence in the countryside reached a peak on 19 April with 2,500 males at the town Erciş killed in a single day.^[66]

On 17 April, Djevdet ordered his battalions to annihilate Shatakh. The ill-disciplined force instead attacked Armenian villages located nearer to Van.^[67] On the same day, Arshak Vramian was arrested.^[68] A schoolmaster was also arrested in Shadakh in mid-April. There had been a local demonstration in his favor. Several prominent Armenians led by Nikoghayos Poghos Mikaelian (Ishkhan) went to this town at the request of Djevdet. Nikoghayos Poghos Mikaelian and other prominent Armenians were stopped midway at Hirj and murdered on 17 April. Among the three leaders of the ARF only Aram Manugian escaped. Djevdet also took action against the leaders of the ARF in Van. For the resistance, this was a sign that the city was not safe. Djevdet undoubtedly thought that, by killing leaders of the Armenian parties, he would destroy the cohesion of the resistance. The minister of interior Mehmed Talat Bey with his order on 24 April (known by the Armenians as the Red Sunday) requested the arrest of the leaders of Armenian community in the Ottoman capital and other centers. They were held in two holding centers near Ankara. Arshak Vramian was sent to the capital with a guard and reported to have disappeared on the way.

City under siege, 20 April

On 20 April, According to Henry Morgenthau, the Ottoman soldiers seized an Armenian woman who wanted to enter the city.^[69] Two Armenian men that came to help were shot dead.^[69] Armenians attacked a Ottoman patrol to Djevdet's anger.^[62] This act led the Ottoman military forces to open fire upon the Armenian quarters of the city with artillery, effectively laying it under siege. This was a section of the city called "Western Garden City".^[69] Henry Morgenthau's account of the activities does not mention the events of 14 April, during which a part of Armenians, named themselves Druzhiny seized the lake side city of Van in a fierce fighting.^[7] In support the local forces, Turks rushed the Van Gendarmerie Division, under the command of Djevdet, to contain and crush this group.^[7]

Armenian civilian forces fought in two disconnected sets of battles inside the city of Van. These were the "Old City" (Kale District) and in the "Garden City" (Aygestan). The conflict in Garden City consisted of skirmishes along the Armenian and Muslim quarters. Both sides had fortified buildings and trenches along the opposite side. The Armenian church at Arak was burned by Djevdet's forces. The initial line was held by Armenian civilian forces throughout the conflict. As part of their strategy, they also attacked the nearby Ottoman barracks, but besides this, they did not take much offensive action. Though enemy artillery was largely ineffectual, they had superiority in men and arms.

On 25 April, the first small group of refuges from the country side arrived to the city through the road to Shushantz which was kept open by the Armenian civilian forces.

The Armenian defenders of Van under the leadership of Aram Manukian, established a local provisional government dealing with defense, provisions, and administration – and foreign relations, to ensure that the neutrality of foreign property was respected. Judges, police and health officials were appointed.^[70] It soon became urgent to get a messenger out to inform the Russians of events. Several messengers with messages sewn into their garments were sent out, and twelve of them got through.^[71]

Russian relief, May

On 28 April, Nikolai Yudenich ordered 2nd Transbaikal Cossack Brigade of General Trukhin^[73] and the Araratian volunteer brigade commanded by Sargis Mehrabyan (Vartan) to be dispatched from Erivan towards Van.^[26][74] One of the twelve dispatched Armenian messengers reached Persia^[71] An Armenian volunteer unit commanded by Andranik and a division commanded by Chernoroyal dispatched from Persia was also sent on 8 May.

On 30 April, number of refugees totaled to 15,000, as the greater part of the refugees from the countryside began to pour into city.^[75] The Armenians in the city at this time reached to 30,000 residents and 15,000 refugees in an area of roughly one square kilometer of the Armenian Quarter and suburb of Aigestan. Djevdet allowed Armenian survivors from the villages to enter the city through his lines. It is stated that his strategy was aimed to subdue the defenders with more ease. After easily fighting off the initial assaults, Armenian forces had great problems with the supply of ammunition. Armenians employed all sorts of devices to draw the fire of the enemy and waste their ammunition in turn. Their bullet and cartridge manufacturing reached 2,000 a day. Armenians also improvised mortars and barricades. They reportedly made use of anything they could find.

On 6 May, a major Russian offensive toward Anatolia developed.^[38] The Ottoman defense lines consisted of the X and XI Corps and the 5th Expeditionary Force at the north flank located beyond the province of Van.^[38] The north flank of the Russian advance, from Tortum valley toward Erzurum was not part of the operations in Van. However, as part of this Russian offensive, the Ottoman 1st Expeditionary Force and the Van Cavalry Brigade were pushed back from their initial positions by Russian and Armenian voluenteers advancing toward the city of Van.^[38] On 12 May, the town of Ardjish at the north of province of Van was relieved. Djevdet sent one cannon and two hundred men from the city of Van to face this group at the Bargiri (Muradiye). It was a late move and far too weak to stop this advance. On 6 May, the conflicts around the citadel of Van (in the Kale District) were over.^[76]

On 14 May, a Friday evening, a group of ships sailed from Van. More ships followed the next day. Turks were evacuating their women and children. On 16 May, there was a bombardment of 46 shells to cover the retreat of the Turkish units. At the same time there were reports of up to 6,000 Armenians being killed.^[77] Contemporary New York Times reports during April–June 1915, attributed the massacres and fighting to Kurdish auxiliary forces rather than Turkish units.^[78]

Djevdet abandoned the city on the night between 16 and 17 May and retreated toward Bashkale and joined the 1st Expeditionary Force under the command of Kaymakam Halil Bey (Kut).^[79]

On 17 May, Armenian civilian forces had control of the town. At the same time, the advance guard of the Russian forces, which pushed the 1st and 3rd Ottoman Cavalry Brigades from the city of Malazgirt since 11 May, reached the north of the province and extended up to the shores of Lake Van. At the same time, the advance guard of the Russian forces that were already in the town pushed the Ottoman forces with a continued press to the south of city. These retreating Ottoman forces experienced logistical shortages caused by the interdiction of lines of communication. Soon after the Russian regulars followed them.^[80]

According to Ussher, on 18 May, the group dispatched from Persia reached the city of Van.^[71] By 20 May, the main centers of the Van province were occupied by Russians. On 23 May 1915, a detachment of Russian soldiers occupied the town of Van, thus bringing the eagerly expected relief to the Armenians, who were besieged by the Ottomans.^[81] However, Russians were busy fighting against the Ottomans and they did not have control of the countryside. The only power left in the countryside consisted of Armenian civilian forces.

General Trukhin's 2nd Transbaikal Cossack Brigade didn't reach Beghrikale until 24 May. General Nazarbekov's 2nd Caucasian Rifle Brigade had been ordered to support Truhin was at Bashkale on 7 May. On 31 May, Trukhin entered city. On the same day, Truhin's patrol and Nazarbekov's advance-guard came into contact between Van and Hoshap.^[82]

General Yudenich received the keys to the city and citadel after his arrival. He confirmed the Armenian provisional government. Aram Manukian became the governor. Armenakis Yekarian became the police chief. Fighting shifted farther west for the rest of the summer with the city of Van secure.^[74] Upon the arrival of the Russians the Ottomans retreated west of Lake Van in the direction of Bitlis.

The aftermath

The first evacuation, July 1915

Throughout June and July, as the conflicts moved toward east thousands of Armenians from Mush and other neighboring provinces started flooding into the city of Van. There were as many as 250,000 Armenians crowded into the city.^[84] This included many who broke away from the deportation columns as they passed the vicinity on their way to Mosul.^[84] Before the crisis, the city of Van had housed and fed no more than 50,000 people.

On 5 June, the north shores of lake Van were devoid of Ottomans forces.^[38] Russians were threatening to move toward Mush.^[38] The Russian army moved its forces from the Van province to the town of Malazgirt for a new offensive into Anatolia toward Mush. The losses taken by the Ottoman 3rd Army created a salient in the southern flank, which created an opportunity for the Russian forces.^[38] However, this was short lived and six weeks later the Russian forces suffered reverses.

On 11 July, Van province was assigned the responsibility of the Right Wing Group (Sağ Cenah Grubu) of the 3rd Army, along the other southern provinces. Mirliva Abdulkerim Pasha was assigned as commander and Enver Pasha ordered this unit to be an independent operational level of the 3rd Army. Mirliva Abdulkerim Pasha managed to stop the Russian advance by 16 July.

On 16 July, the Ottoman Army finalized pushing the Russian Army at Battle of Malazgirt (10–26 July 1915) to its initial line. This followed the battle of Kara Killisse. As a result of the defeat, the Russians had to evacuate Van. Armen Garo, and his assistant, Khetcho asked of General Abatzieff to permit the Armenian inhabitants to move with the Russian army toward Igdir. This request was rejected on the grounds that the vital army transports could not done promptly if hampered by refugees.^[85] For eight consecutive days during July, General Nikolaeff kept the Armenian leaders remain idle. The Russian General told them every day that he would not retreat under any circumstances, and that therefore it was entirely needless to remove the people.^[85]

On 18 July, General Nikolaeff sent a dispatch to Aram Manukian, and Sargis Mehrabyan (Vartan) for evacuation.^[85] General Trokin was in the city at this time. He offered to evacuate the Armenian population to Russian territory through the north passages. General Trokin received a dispatch just after five hours to leave the city and make his exit through Persia.^[86] This left the Armenian volunteers in the position to be the only defenders of the Armenian refugees. "The panic was indescribable. After a long resistance to Djevdet Bey, after the city's liberation, after an establishment of an Armenian governorship, all was blighted."^[84] Armenian civilian forces drew the attention of four Ottoman divisions and tens of thousands of Kurds during the retreat.^[87] The battalions of Armenian volunteers took no active part in the battles of July. They were undertaking the heavy duty of rear guard work for the Russian army and the Armenian refugees in the district of Van.^[85]

On 4 August, Russian forces from Van made an exit toward Persia and took defensive positions at the Bargiri, Saray and Hoshap districts of Van province. The refugee group following the Russian forces were stopped by Kurdish forces while they crossed the mountain passes at north of Pass of Beghrikale. At the Pass of Berkri Kale Armenian refugess had major casualties. Refugess that passed to the other side were assisted by Armenian relief agencies.

On 5 August, Russian forces making an exit toward Russian Caucasus from Van retreated 20 kilometers into Russian territory followed by the Ottoman Right Wing. Abdülkerim Pasha earlier asked for permission before leaving the Van Province into Russian territory. Enver Pasha personally gave the order to advance up to of Eleşkirt and Kara Kilise and clean up the border region of all Russian elements.

In early August 1915, nearly 200,000 refuges fleeing behind the retreating Russian forces swarmed into Transcaucasia.^[84] There were two major groups of refuges that left the city. One group left under the protection of Armenian volunteers and the other group tried to leave by their own means. Nearly 150,000 Armenian inhabitants were compelled to leave all their property at the mercy of enemy fire and flee toward Erivan under the protection of volunteers.^[87] The refuges who had protection suffered a loss of 8,000 to 10,000 men, women, and children.^[85] More than 5,000 refuges died fighting tribal attacks in the mountain crossings. As many as 40,000 Armenians perished during this flight.^[84] The commander of Armenian volunteer units later claimed: "If the Russian general had given an opportunity of seven or eight days to organize the retreat, it would have been possible to direct the people to Erivan without the loss of a single life.^[85]

On 29 September, the Ottoman Army left the city of Van after staying only roughly a month. They had to retreat once more from defeats suffered on the field. Some of the Armenian residents who escaped to Transcaucasia returned.

On 19 January 1916, the defeat at the Battle of Koprukoy brought the front line farther west from the province of Van. The Province of Van was under the Administration of Western Armenia until 1918. The conflicts between 1916–1918 were shifted to the north-east at battle of Mush and to the south-east at battle of Bitlis of the Van Province.

The final evacuation, April 1918

In 1917, the Russian Revolution of 1917 changed the situation in the region again. The Russian armies began to disintegrate.^[88] Van was completely cut off from the Allies. The British Army did not move very far beyond Baghdad in the Mesopotamian campaign.^[88] Armenians of Van attempted to hold their ground.^[88] and were joined in the defense by Assyrians.^[88]

On 3 March 1918, the Grand vizier Talat Pasha signed the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk with the Russian SFSR. The Treaty of Brest-Litovsk stipulated that the border be pulled back to prewar levels and the cities of Batum, Kars, and Ardahan to be transferred to Ottoman Empire. Early in 1918 the Ottoman 3rd Army moved to an offensive against Armenians. Vehib Pasha executed the offensive in three wings. On the right wing, Van province was assigned to IV Corps. IV Corps assignment was to extend to Beyazit.

In April, 1918, Armenians of Van resisted in Van one more time. On 4 April, the city of Van started changing hands several times. The Ottoman Army again controlled of city of Van by 6 April, followed by Beyazit on 14 April.^[38] Armenians of Van were eventually forced to evacuate and withdraw from the province of Van. Armenians of Van retreated eastward toward Persian Azerbaijan.^[89] They made a stand near Dilman. They repulsed the Ottomans once there, at the Battle of Dilman (1918), but, on being attacked again, were compelled to retreat southward around Lake Urmiah.^[89] In pursuit of the Van Armenians and Assyrian mountaineers, the Ottoman 3rd Army clashed with Urmieh Assyrians, which made them refugees as well, in this retreat southward toward Mesopotamia.^[89]

During July, 1918 the British Army occupied the greater portion of Mesopotamia during the Mesopotamian Campaign, as well as a large part of Persian Azerbaijan during the Persian Campaign. Preparations were made for the establishment of a large camp for Armenian refugees near Bakubah, Iraq.^[90]

During the first week of September 1918, retreating Armenians from Van came to the Bakubah refugee camp in parties of 1,000 or 2,000, by road and by train.^[90] Many of them were suffering from dysentery, typhus and relapsing fever, and there was a small epidemic of smallpox among the children.^[90] There were many who died along the road because of weakness and starvation.^[90] This went on through September and the first half of October, until about 40,000 had been received in all.^[90] Towards the end of September it was decided to raise four battalions from among the Armenians on the lines of an Indian Infantry battalion.^[91] 2nd Battalion was established by Van Armenians. 3rd Battalion was established by Armenians from other regions. The G.O.C. North Persian Force decided to locate 2nd Battalion to Senna. 3rd Battalion moved to Bijar.^[91]

On 30 October 1918, the Ottoman Empire signed the Armistice of Mudros and the military operations ended.

Results

Casualties

On 15 May 1915, the Russian consul at the city of Van reported that 6,000 Armenians had been massacred at Van, which has been the scene of so many similar outrages during the last twenty years.^[81]

Henry Morgenthau referring to Doctor Ussher, "after driving off the Turks, Russians cremated the bodies of Armenians who had been murdered in the province, with the result that 55,000 bodies were burned".^[93] The systematic massacre of 25,000 Armenians in the Bashkala district, of whom less than 10 per cent, were said to have escaped, appeared to have been ordered.^[94]

Though Armenian refugees were the focus of attention of the Western powers and all the relief efforts, most of the Armenian deaths still occurred in the refugee camps where the toll was as high 300-400/day in the Russian Caucasus from starvation and diseases as reported by the British Consul in the area.^[95]

Atrocities

Most of killings were attributed to Circassian and Kurds, although some reported Turkish troops as perpetrators. Rafael De Nogales, a Venezuelan officer fighting for the Turks, mentions in his memoirs that Ottoman officials had received orders to exterminate all Armenian males of twelve years of age and older.^[96] According to Ussher, on 19 April, Djevdet issued an order throughout the Van province, which read: "The Armenians must be exterminated. If any Muslim protects a Christian, first, his house shall be burnt; then the Christian killed before his eyes, then his [the Muslim's] family and then himself."^[97] Djevdet was later accused of war crimes at Turkish Courts-Martial of 1919-20 against the Armenians during operations around the city of Van during the spring of 1915.^[31]

Reports and reactions

The consulates of the United States, Germany and Austria-Hungary, as well as a number of Ottoman officials recorded and documented the reasons of the Van uprising:

"I have told this story of the "Revolution" in Van not only because it marked the first stage in this organized attempt to wipe out a whole nation, but because these events are always brought forward by the Turks as a justification of their subsequent crimes. As I shall relate, Enver, Talaat, and the rest, when I appealed to them in behalf of the Armenians, invariably instanced the "revolutionists" of Van as a sample of Armenian treachery. The famous "Revolution", as this recital shows, was merely the determination of the Armenians to save their women's honour and their own lives, after the Turks, by massacring thousands of their neighbours, had shown them the fate that awaited them."

—Henry Morgenthau, Sr., Ambassador Morgenthau's Story

On 15 April 1915, the German ambassador in Constantinople, reported:

Armenians have given up their ideas of a revolution since the introduction of the Constitution and that there is no organization for such a revolt".^[98]

—Hans Freiherr von Wangenheim

The governor-general of the Ottoman Empire in Erzurum, Tahsin Bey wrote that:

"There was not and could not have been an uprising in Van. Through our constant pressure [of the local population] we have created a mess from which we can no longer escape, and we have put the army in a difficult position in the East."^[99]

Ibrahim Avras, a Van deputy in the Ottoman parliament, was in the city at the time, and reported that the CUP was secretly provoking people to attack Armenians.^[100]

Cultural references

The resistance occupies a significant place in Armenian national identity because it symbolize the Armenians’ will to resist.^[101] The Ararat (film), directed, written, and co-produced by Atom Egoyan re-stages (with limited means) some fictionalized events of the Defense of Van. Ararat won several awards. To commemorate the defenders of the battle a memorial was created during the 1970s in Soviet Armenia in Agarak, Talin village.^[102] The town was repopulated by some refugees from Van in 1920. Nerkin Bazmaberd located at the north of Agarak was also populated by descendants of the Van refugees of 1915.

Footnotes

References

Bibliography

Personal Accounts

• Ussher, Clarence D. (1917). An American Physician in Turkey.. Houghton Mifflin Company. http://books.google.com/books?id=QXtCAAAAIAAJ&client. 
• Méndez, Rafael Méndez (1926). Four Years beneath the Crescent. London: Charles Scribner's Sons. ISBN 1-903656-19-2. 
• Pasdermadjian, Garegin; Aram Torossian (1918). Why Armenia Should be Free: Armenia's Role in the Present War. Hairenik Pub. Co.. p. 45. http://books.google.com/books?id=4XYMAAAAYAAJ. 
• Northcote, Dudley S. (1922). "Saving Forty Thousand Armenians". Current History (New York Times Co.,). http://books.google.com/books?id=4LYqAAAAYAAJ&client=firefox-a&pg=RA1-PA788&ci=115,164,809,150&source=bookclip. Retrieved 12 December 2008. 
• Austin, H. H. (1920). The Baqubah Refugee Camp. ISBN 9781593334017. http://books.google.com/books?id=BL_suak0lc4C. 

Collections

• Toynbee, Arnold Joseph; Viscount Bryce (1916). "Vilayet of Van". The Treatement of Armenians on the Ottoman Empire. London: Couston & Sons Ltd.. 
• Morgenthau, Henry (1917). "The "Revolution" at Van". Ambassador Morgenthau's Story. Doubleday, Page & Company. http://books.google.com/books?id=ENsLAAAAYAAJ&pg=RA1-PA293&ci=86,247,760,157. 
• Halsey, Francis Whiting (1919). "History of the World War". The Literary Digest (Funk & Wagnalls Company). http://books.google.com/books?id=yq01AAAAMAAJ. Retrieved 12 December 2008. 

Recent publications

• Shaw, Stanford Jay; Shaw, Ezel Kural (1977). History of the Ottoman Empire and Modern Turkey. Cambridge University Press. 
• Erickson, Edward J. (2001). Ordered to Die: A History of the Ottoman Army in the First World War. Greenwood Publishing Group. ISBN 9780313315169. 
• Krikorian, Mesrob K. (1978). Armenians in the Service of the Ottoman Empire, 1860–1908. Routledge. ISBN 9780710085641. 
• Hinterhoff, Eugene (1984). Persia: The Stepping Stone To India. Marshall Cavendish Illustrated Encyclopedia of World War I, vol iv. New York: Marshall Cavendish Corporation. ISBN 0-86307-181-3. 
• Accounts of Armenian survivors from Van.
• Balakian, Peter (2004). The Burning Tigris: The Armenian Genocide and America's Response. New York: HarperCollins. ISBN 0-0605-5870-9.
• Walker, Christopher J.(1990) Armenia: The Survival of a Nation. London: Palgrave Macmillan
• Hohanissian, Richard G. (1997) The Armenian People from Ancient to Modern Times. New York. St. Martin's Press.
• Justin McCarthy, et al. (2006) The Armenian Rebellion at Van University of Utah Press, Salt Lake City. ISBN 978-0-87480-870-4.
• Akçam, Taner. (2006) A Shameful Act: The Armenian Genocide and the Question of Turkish Responsibility. New York. Metropolitan Books. ISBN = 0-8050-7932-7.

See also

• Armenian Genocide
• Caucasus Campaign
• Ottoman Armenian population
• Six vilayets
• Administration for Western Armenia